S 837 
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Institute of International Education 



International Relations Clubs 
Syllabus No. XI 

The Political and Economic 
Expansion of Japan 



By Walter B. Pitkin 

Associate Professor of Journalism 
Columbia University, New York City 




October, 192 1 






The Institute of International Education 

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International Relations Clubs Margaret C. Alexander 



Institute of International Education 

International Relations Clubs 
Syllabus No. XI 

The Political and Economic 
Expansion of Japan 

By Walter B. Pitkin 

. Associate Professor of Journalism 
Columbia University, New York City 




October, 1921 



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PREFACE 

The following chronological outline has been drawn for the 
express purpose of delineating, in its simplest form, the course 
of Japan's political, economic and military expansion from the 
earliest times to date. The temptation has been to include many 
detailed statistics on trade and military budgets and treaty terms, 
but all these have been reduced to the barest series of hints. The 
student is expected to turn back to the various statistical sources 
here mentioned, in order to fill in for himself the continuity of 
Japan's remarkable development. He should also study the 
chronology with a map and mark it with the appropriate dates 
of each major development in territorial acquisition, railway 
building, and trade concession. Only thus can a clear picture of 
the whole evolution be gained. 

Unfortunately, no book has ever been written on the precise 
correlation between military and economic expansion in the Far 
East. Certain phases of this, to be sure, have been dealt with in 
the various works alluded to in the following bibliography. But 
he who seeks a full understanding of the manner in which business 
and empire have gone hand in hand in Japan must piece together 
the story for himself, using trade reports in conjunction with the 
diplomatic and political records. Needless to say, such a task is 
by no means easy. But it should be done, in rough outline at least. 

Walter B. Pitkin 
New York, October i, 1921 



3] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The following books deal with most of the phases of Japanese 
expansion : 

Abbott, J. F., Japanese Expansion and American Policies 

Gibbons, H. A., The New Map of Asia 

Hall, Arnold B., The Monroe Doctrine and the Great War 

Hart, A. B., The Monroe Doctrine 

Hornbeck, S. K., Contemporary Politics in the Far East 

lyenaga, T. and Sato, K., Japan and the California Problem 

Kawakami, K. K., Japan in World Politics 

Latane, J. H., From Isolation to Leadership 

Millard, T. F., Democracy and the Eastern Question 

Pitkin, W. B., Must We Fight Japan? 

r 

The Truth About China and Japan 
Reshaping the Far East 
^ The Fight for the Republic in China 



Weale, B. L. Putnam- 



A good general bibliography on Japan down to 191 6 is to be 
found in the Japan supplement of the New York Evening Pasty 
December 30, 1916, pages 25 and 26. 

A recent bibliography of Japanese- American relations, bearing 
in part on Japanese expansion, has been compiled by the New 
York Public Library, and published in the Library Bulletins of 
January and February, 1921. 

For the texts of various important Japanese treaties and agree- 
ments concerning matters of political, military, and economic 
expansion, see the various Japan Year Books, particularly that 
for 1910. 

Details of Japan's commercial expansion will be found in the 
various bulletins and annual reports of the U. S. Department of 
Commerce, as well as in the Japan Year Book. 

A general survey of Japanese history and trade is found in the 
Encyclopaedia Britannica, under ''Japan." 



4] 



EARLY ATTEMPTS AT EXPANSION 

In the third century the Empress Jingo, of Japan, conquered 
Korea, but the Japanese did not remain long in the country. 

1587. Hideyoshi issued the first decree expeUing all foreigners from 
Japan. It was not strictly enforced. 

1 592-1 598. The first Japanese invasion of the Asiatic mainland 
took place. Hideyoshi, a great commander, sent 300,000 
soldiers into Korea, for the purpose of conquering China. He 
crushed the Koreans in a series of terrible massacres on land, 
but was finally beaten by Korean sailors, who devised the 
first crude ironclads ever used. The campaign lasted six and 
one half years and cost a quarter of a million lives. 

1614. Tokugawa Shogun issued a decree of expulsion against for- 
eigners and undertook to enforce it. 

1638. The expulsion of foreigners begun in 1614 came to its tri- 
umphant finish with the massacre of thirty-seven thousand 
Japanese Christians. From now on Japan remained abso- 
lutely closed to outsiders for two hundred and seventeen 
years. 

Adams, Francis O., The History of Japan From the Earliest 
Period. London, 1875. Vol. I. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY EXPANSION 

1 861. Russia suddenly seized the Island of Tsushima, but was 
obliged to withdraw through the intervention of the British 
minister, Sir Rutherford Alcock, and Admiral J. Hope, com- 
mander of the British-China squadron. 



1863. Kagoshima was bombarded by a British squadron in August, 
and in the following year Shimonoseki was also bombarded 
by the Allied squadrons of England, America, France and 
Holland. The murder of a Mr. Richardson, a Shanghai 
merchant, by some retainers of the Lord of Satsuma, was the 
cause of the attack. 

1868. Japan demanded from Korea recognition of the New Imperial 
Government. The Koreans refused, and war threatened, but 
was blocked by the Japanese statesmen themselves. 

1 87 1. Formosan headhunters killed some natives of the Loo-choo 
Islands, which had long been paying tribute to both China 
and Japan. Japan demanded redress. China refused to aid 
in securing such redress, claiming she had no jurisdiction over 
the aboriginal inland tribes that had committed the offence. 
Japan sent three thousand soliders to Formosa. In the en- 
suing settlement, October 31, at Peking, Japan established 
exclusive suzerainty over the Loo-choo Islands. 

1872. Commerce before Japan's "industrial revolution." A sig- 
nificant manner of considering the expansion is to look at the 
volume of imports and exports per capita in the country. On 
this basis, in 1872, the average Japanese contributed only 
half a yen, or about twenty-five cents, to his country's ex- 
ports, while he received from abroad only seventy-nine sen, 
or about thirty-eight cents worth of all imports. 

Exports Imports 

17,026,647 yen 26,174,815 yen 

1875. Ogasawara-jima, or Bonin, was recognized by America as 
Japan's possession. 

After years of negotiation with Russia over the title to the 
island of Sakhalin, Japan agreed to recognize the territory as 
belonging to Russia, provided that Russia recognized Japan's 
title to the Kuriles. Russia accepted this arrangement. 

1876. Japan forced Korea to sign a treaty with her in which Korea 
was recognized as an independent state (no longer under vas- 

16] 



salage to China) and was empowered to enter into treaties 
with other powers on a parity. 

1880. Final conferences were held in Peking over the title to the 
Loo-choo Islands. The Chinese plenipotentiary refused to 
sign without further consultation and authorization; the 
Japanese withdrew, construing China's failure as final evi- 
dence of recognition of Japan's suzerainty over Loo-choo. 

1882. Korea, torn by Chinese and Japanese intrigues, signed foreign 
treaties and soon afterward mobs destroyed the Japanese 
legation building at Seoul, Thereupon, both China and Japan 
sent three thousand soldiers to Seoul. The menace of war was 
deferred by some inconsequential diplomatic patching-up. 

Trade Expansion 

Exports Imports 

37,721,751 yen 29,446,594 yen 

1884. Korean and Chinese troops under Yuan Shi-Kai attacked the 
palace in Seoul which Japanese troops were defending. 
Serious friction was narrowly averted. 

1885. Prince Ito and Li Hung Chang signed a new convention con- 
cerning Korea. Both China and Japan therein agreed to 
evacuate Korea and to help this country create its own home 
defence. 

1 89 1. Trade Expansion 

Exports Imports 

79,527,272 yen 62,927,268 yen 

Callahan, James M., American Relations in the Pacific and. 
the Far East, 1784-IQ00, Johns Hopkins Press, 1901. 
Chamberlain, Basil H., Things Japanese, London, 1898. 



THE WAR WITH CHINA 

1894. China's continued claim of sovereignty over Korea led more 
and more to conflicts with Japanese policy. On July 23, after 
a long series of factional quarrels between pro-Chinese and 

[7] 



pro-Japanese groups in Korea, some Japanese kidnapped the 
Queen of Korea and her children, and appointed a pro- 
Japanese regent. On July 25, the Chinese transport "Kow- 
shing" was sunk by Japanese cruisers. On August i, Japan 
declared war on China. The war lasted only seven and one 
half months, and ended in an overwhelming Japanese victory 
which brought the following terms in the Treaty of Shim- 
onoseki, April 17, 1895: 

China was bound (i) to agree to complete independence of 
Korea; (2) to cede the Liaotung peninsula and ics littoral; 
(3) and Formosa and the Pescadores; (4) to pay indemnity 
of two hundred million taels; (5) to open up Shashih, 
Chung-King, Suchow and Hangchow to commerce, and the 
Yangtze to navigation. The second clause Japan had to 
renounce owing to the pressure exerted by Russia, Ger- 
many, and France, and had to console herself with the 
thirty million taels paid by China for it. Japan was to 
receive that part of Manchuria south of the line drawn 
from the mouth of the Anping river to the mouth of the 
Liao; also the Pescadores and Formosa. Russia, Germany 
and France protested the occupation of the mainland by 
Japan. Their polite show of power led Japan to accede, 
especially as she had been financially exhausted by the war. 
The war with China was a powerful stimulant to Japanese 
commercial expansion. It marks the beginning of the Em- 
pire's conscious efforts to attain the economic, as well as the 
political level of the great world powers, by the development 
of manufactures and trade. 
Compare the figures below given with those of 1 891. 

1897. Trade Expansion 

Exports Imports 

163, 135*077 yen 219,300,772 yen 

1902. January. Japan entered an entente with Great Britain. 

THE WAR WITH RUSSIA 

1904. After a long period of Russian aggression in Manchuria and 
adjacent territories, during which the Czar and his agents 
resorted to trickery, fraud, and violence, against both 

[81 



Chinese and Japanese, Japan went to war with Russia. The 
war ended with the Portsmouth Treaty. This Treaty stipu- 
lated that Russia transfer Port Arthur and the territory 
adjacent to Japan; that Russia recognize the paramount 
interest of Japan in Korea; that Manchuria be restored to 
China"; and that the portion of Sakhahn south of the fiftieth 
parallel of latitude be ceded to Japan. 

Japan also won from Russia one hundred and sixty versts 
(one hundred and six miles) of the Central Manchurian Rail- 
way, north of the zone occupied by Japanese forces at the 
end of hostilities. This concession was made through a con- 
fusion for which Count Witte was responsible. It placed the 
control of the Sungari wheat fields in Japan's hands, as well 
as permanently destroying the military value of the whole 
Trans-Siberian Railway from Harbin to Vladivostok. From 
this date forth the Russian Maritime provinces fell under the 
strategic domination of Japan. 

1905. Trade Expansion 

Exports Imports 

321,533,610 yen 488,538,017 yen 

In 1905, the average Japanese was sending abroad 6.70 yen, 
or more than thirteen times as much as in 1872; and he was 
receiving 10.18 yen worth of imports, or again thirteen times 
as much as in 1872. 

In September, the Japanese-British entente was revised into 
an offensive-defensive alliance which insured the integrity of 
China and the territorial rights of both signatories in India 
and Eastern Asia, each party guaranteeing to aid the other 
in the event such rights were jeopardized through the activi- 
ties of any third power. (Japan Year Book, 1910, page 
429 etc.) 

1907. On April 15, Japan and China formally entered into an agree- 
ment concerning railway development and control. (Japan 
Year Book, 1910, page 437.) 

France and Russia concluded ententes with Japan in which 
the status quo of the contracting parties in the Far East was 
guaranteed. 

l9l 



1908. Philander Knox, Secretary of State of the United States 
proposed to the Great Powers a plan of neutralizing the rail- 
ways of Manchuria. This was rejected because of Russian 
and Japanese opposition. 

1909. British and American financiers planned to construct the 
Chinchow-Aigun Railway which would parallel the Man- 
churian Railway taken over by Japan. 

On August 19, Japan-China Agreements concerning the 
Antung-Mukden Railway, Chiento and other outstanding 
questions with China were concluded. 

1910. On January 21, Japan sent a reply to America declining Sec- 
retary of State Knox's proposal to neutralize the South Man- 
churian Railway. 

On August 22, the Treaty of Annexation was signed by the 
Representatives of Japan and Korea and was made public 
on August 29. Korea became officially a part of the Japanese 
Empire. 

By 1910 Japan had full control of all railways in Manchuria 
east of the Liao river, all the mines there, and a new salt 
manufacturing enterprise which was forcing its product on 
the Chinese, in spite of the fact that salt was a Chinese gov- 
ernment monopoly. The lumber business of the Yalu dis- 
trict was also completely in the hands of Japan. 

191 1. During the Revolution in China Japan sent infantry to the 
city of Hankow (six hundred miles up the Yangtze river). 
These forces are still there. Japan has subsequently erected a 
large wireless station there. 

1913. Under the agreement of this year with China, Japan financed 
and constructed four railway lines in Manchuria. The official 
opinion as to the possibilities of the lines and the territories 
they traverse is that 

"the population within the present limits of the four lines 
numbers between twenty and thirty millions, but the re- 
gion can easily support double this number. The farming 
as at present conducted is so rough that each family oc- 
cupies on an average twenty-five to thirty-five acres." 
In October an agreement about railway concessions in Man- 
churia was concluded between Japan and China. 

[10] 



JAPAN IN THE WORLD WAR 

1914. Japan entered the World War on the side of the AlHes. On 
October 6, the Japanese squadron occupied the German 
possessions of Jaluit ; and about a week later several of the 
Mariana, Marshall and Caroline groups were occupied. One 
survey ship was captured. 

Japan took over the Marshall Islands, and made the 
Japanese language compulsory in the schools. 

1915. The Japanese criminal and civil code for the Marshall Islands 
was issued. Japan took over the Yap cable under the League 
of Nations ruHng. This cable connects with Shanghai, 
Menado (Celebes) and Guam. 

On January 18, Japan served the "twenty-four demands" on 
China. (For text, see B. L. Putnam Weale: Fight for the 
Republic in China. Appendix.) 

On April 26, Japan submitted her "revised twenty-one 
demands" on China. (For text and events in connection with 
this move, compare Putnam Weale : The Fight for the Republic 
in China, page loi, ff.) 

On July 8, the New Russo-Japanese Convention was promul- 
gated as follows: 

The Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia, having 
resolved by united efforts to obtain permanent peace in 
the Far East, agreed upon the following: 

Article I. Japan will not become party to any arrangement 
or political combination directed against Russia. 
Russia will not become party to any arrangement 
or political combination directed against Japan. 

Article II. In case the territorial rights or special interests 
in the Far East of one of the contracting parties 
recognized by the other contracting party are 
menaced, Japan and Russia will act in concert 
on the measures to be taken in view of the sup- 
port or co-operation necessary for the protection 
and defence of these rights and interests. 

[II] 



19 1 8. Civil Administration in the Marshall Islands was begun under 
the control of the Japanese navy. 

Location and jurisdiction of officers of the civil administra- 
tion department created by the Japanese Navy's authority 
in 1 91 8, for the South Sea Islands group administered by 
Japan : 

Location Jurisdiction 

Saipan Mariana Islands 

Palau West Carolines, west of east longitude 137° 

Yap West Carolines, east of east longitude 137 

Truk East Carolines, west of east longitude 154 

Ponape East Carolines, east of east longitude 154 

and Marshalls, west of east longitude 154 

Jaluit Marshalls, east of east longitude 160 

FINANCIAL EXPANSION OF JAPAN SINCE THE 

WORLD WAR 

1918. During this year Japanese banks and syndicates made 
twenty-nine loans to the Chinese Government and Chinese 
enterprises totalling 246,400,000 yen. These loans were, in 
the main, for military railways, telephones and forestry. 
And it was such assets as these latter that were given as 
security for the loans. 

Of all the loans, the most important politically was the one 
for 26,000,000 yen made to the Shantung railways as a conse- 
quence of the Shantung Railway Agreement of September 24, 
191 8, according to which Japan was to garrison permanently 
the capital of Shantung province, to control the police in the 
railway zone, and to fill all the important railway posts. On 
September 28, the Chinese Minister to Japan secretly signed 
at Tokio the Manchurian and Mongolian Railway Agree- 
ment, according to which the Industrial Bank of Japan, the 
Bank of Taiwan, and the Bank of Chosen would finance the 
construction of four railways lying northeast of Peking and 
effectively dominating not only the capital but also the entire 
territory to the north and east thereof. The violent opposi- 
tion to this project among the Chinese prevented the ratifica- 
tion of the agreement within the stipulated time limit of four 
months. 

[12] 



1920. Japan began withdrawing troops from the Amur Provinces of 
Siberia and concentrated them along the Chinese Eastern 
Railway and in the Maritime Provinces. 
A special commission of inquiry, appointed by China to in- 
vestigate the activities of the Japanese over the Chinese 
Eastern Railway, declared as to bandit raids in the vicinity 
of the railroad which spans the Province of Manchuria, that 
it was "plain that certain bandits were armed with Japanese 
guns," and "that a foreign influence is exercised in favor of the 
bandits for the evident purpose of destroying Chinese auth- 
ority." The Japanese have installed themselves in the build- 
ings of the company. 

"Japan has acted independently, in spite of the Allies, in 
Northern Manchuria, in Transbaikalia, and in the Amur 
Province, and is today virtual master of Harbin, of Chita, 
and of Blavovestchenok . . . Evidence is accumulating 
that Japan has followed a set plan since 191 7." 
At various times since the Armistice Japanese business men 
and foreign investors have acquired a large number of con- 
cessions and created many corporations in the Far Eastern 
Republic, Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the PhiHppines. 
The gross investments of Japanese in China are not precisely 
known, but reliable financial authorities estimate them as 
ranging between $750,000,000 and $1,250,000,000. No trust- 
worthy figures are at hand to show the extent of the Siberian 
investments. 

Trade Expansion 

Exports Imports 

1,928,000,000 yen 2,320,000,000 yen 

Japan comes next to the United Kingdom in the Indian trade 
returns. A decade ago, the bulk of Japan's trade with India 
was carried in British bottoms, financed by British banks and 
distributed by British or Indian traders. Now, ninety per 
cent of the goods go in Japanese steamers, and they are to a 
large extent financed by Japanese banks, and distributed by 
Japanese nationals. Similar conditions obtain in the export 
trade, but reports from many quarters tell of growing dis- 
satisfaction with Japanese goods on the part of the Indian 
consumer. 

1 13] 



THE AWARD OF THE YAP CABLE TO JAPAN 

At the Council of the Great Powers at Versailles, Japan in- 
sisted from the start that the Japanese Government was en- 
titled to German rights and interests in the Island of Yap. 
A mandate was granted to Japan by the League of Nations, 
which was accepted. 

The United States has maintained — and still maintains — 
that it was never a party to the agreement by which Yap was 
conferred upon Japan, and it has also insisted upon equal 
commercial opportunities for all nationals in the mandated 
territories. A special protest has been lodged concerning the 
violation of American interests and rights in the assignment of 
the German cable station to the Japanese Government. 
During 1921 the State Department and the Japan Foreign 
Office took up the question with a view to achieving a settle- 
ment prior to the Disarmament Conference at Washington. 
While progress is being made in that direction, no final 
result has as yet been announced by either Power. 



GROWTH OF POPULATION 

Japan took her first census in 1920. The figures are given 
below. For her previous rate of growth, see the Government 
estimates in the Japan Year Book for the desired period. 

Japanese Census 1920. 

The distribution of the population is as follows : 

Japan proper 55,961,140 

Korea 17,284,207 

Formosa 3,654,000 

Sakhalin 105,765 

Total 77,005,112 



14 



INCREASE IN SHIPPING 

In 1855 Japan had one steamship, presented by the Dutch 
Government. In 1870 there were 35 steamers with a total of 
15,498 tons: 

1872 23,364 tons 

1882 42,199 

1892 165,764 

1902 610,446 

1912 702,738 

1914 1,177,760 

1918 2,310,960 

1921 2,995,878 

SaiHng boats are not included in above figures. 



[15 



PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS 

1919 
*Announcement of Founding of Institute. 

1920 

Bulletin No. i. First Annual Report of the Director. 

*Bulletin No. 2. For Administrative Authorities of Universities 

and Colleges. 
Bulletin No. 3. Observations on Higher Education in Europe. 
Opportunities for Higher Education in France. 
Opportunities for Graduate Study in the British Isles. 

192 1 

Bulletin No. i. Second Annual Report of the Director. 
Bulletin No. 2. Opportunities for Higher Education in Italy. 
*Bulletin No. 3. Serial of an International Character. 

(Tentative List for Libraries) 
*Bulletin No. 4. Educational Facilities in the United States for 

South African Students. 
Bulletin No. 5. Guide Book for Foreign Students in the United 

States. 
Bulletin No. 6. See Syllabus No. VII. 

For the International Relations Clubs 

Syllabus No. I. Outline of the Covenant of the League of Nations. 
Syllabus No. II. The Past, Present and Future of the Monroe Doc- 
trine. 
Syllabus No. III. The History of Russia from Earliest Times. 
Syllabus No. IV. The Russian Revolution. 
Syllabus No. V. The Question of the Balkans. 
Syllabus No. VI. Modern Mexican History. 
Syllabus No. VII. Hispanic- American History. 
Syllabus No. VIII. The Question of the Near East. 
Syllabus No. IX. China Under the Republic. 
Syllabus No. X. The Baltic States. 
Syllabus No. XI. The Political and Economic Expansion of Japan. 

*Out of print. 



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ADVISORY COUNCIL 



Addams, Jane 
Alderman, President Edwin 
Ames, Dean Herman V. 
Andrews, Fanny Fern 
Biggs, Dr. Herman 
Blakeslee, Professor G. H. 
Brookings, Robert S. 
Bru^re, Henry 
Bull, Dr. Carroll G. 
Burton, President M. L. 
Byrne, James 

Coolidge, Professor Archibald 
Cravath, Paul D. 
Cunliffe, Professor J. W. 
Davis, Katherine B. 
Downer, Professor Charles A. 
Ely, Professor Richard T. 
Filene, A. Lincoln 
Finley, Dr. John H. 
Fosdick, Dr. Harry E. 
Gilbert, Cass 
Gildersleeve, Dean V. C. 
Goodnow, President F. J. 
Hadley, Dr. A. T. 
Hale, Dr. George E. 
Harrington, Governor E. C. 
Hazen, Professor Charles D. 
Hibben, President J. G. 
Howe, Professor Henry M. 
Hughes, Hon. Charles E. 
Jenks, Professor Jeremiah 
Judson, President H. P. 
Keppel, Frederick P. 
Keyser, Professor C. J. 
Lovett, President Edgar 
Lowell, President A. L. 
MacCracken, President H. N. 



Mali, Pierre 

Main, President J. H. T. 
Mannes, David 
Marling, Alfred E. 
Meiklejohn, President A. 
M ill i ken. Professor R. A. 
Moore, Professor E. H. 
Morgan, William Fellowes 
Neilson, President W. A. 
Noyes, Professor Arthur A, 
Payne, President Bruce R, 
Pendleton, President Ellen T, 
Pupin, Professor Michael L 
Putnam, Herbert 
Richardson, Dr. E. C. 
Robinson, Dr. Edward 
Sachs, Professor Julius 
Salmon, Dr. Thomas VV. 
Schwedtman, Ferdinand C. 
Severance, Mrs. C. A. 
Shanklin, President W. A. 
Shorey, Professor Paul 
Shotwell, Professor J. T. 
Showerman, Professor Grant 
Stimson, Henry L. 
Stokes, Dr. Anson Phelps 
Storey, Professor Thomas A. 
Suzzallo, President Henry 
Thomas, President M. Carey 
Todd, Professor Henry A. 
Townsend, Hon. John G. 
Vincent, Dr. George E. 
VVald, Lillian D. 
White, Professor Henry C. 
Wilkins, Professor Ernest H. 
Wilson, Professor George G. 
Wood bridge, Dean F. J. E. 



Woolley, President Mary E. 






L'.BRARY OF CONGRESS ^ 



029 979 061 7 




